Farah Al Hattab is a campaigner and legal researcher with Greenpeace Middle East & North Africa based in Beirut. She was born and raised in southern Lebanon.
Alongside the joys of childhood in the mountains of southern Lebanon, war and active bombing were never far away. While the Israeli occupation of most parts of southern Lebanon ended on May 25, 2000, two years after I was born; occupations of the West Bank, Gaza Strip, Golan Heights and Shebaa Farms still continue today. A 33 day war was waged on Lebanon in July, 2006, when I was eight years old. I was raised with the conviction that the fate of the Lebanese and the Palestinians is historically interconnected, and that one day, Palestine will be free. But this is not about me.
As I’m writing, the Israeli war on the Gaza Strip has been raging for 270 days, with at least 38,430 people killed, and 86,969 wounded since October 7th, according to the Gaza Health Ministry. We are witnessing an unfolding genocide that also has dire consequences for ecosystems and violates the right of many people to enjoy and live in a healthy environment.
“One of the serious consequences of the war in Gaza has been the massive violation of the right to a clean, healthy, and sustainable environment… which represent a serious risk to life and the enjoyment of all other rights. The region is already experiencing serious climate impacts that could get even worse.” – Astrid Puentes Riaño, UN Special Rapporteur on the human right to a healthy environment in The Guardian, 6 June 2024.
Since the beginning of the war, as an environmental and legal researcher, I have been reading and compiling articles and information about the ravaging impact of the war on Gaza’s environment. Below is a snapshot of what has been documented so far.
The environmental toll of the ongoing war in Gaza
The ongoing war on Gaza has inflicted severe environmental damage, affecting air, water, and land, and all who depend on them. The immediate carbon emissions from the war are staggering, with a mean estimate of 536,410 tonnes of carbon dioxide in the first 120 days of war, 90% of which are attributed to Israel’s air bombardment and ground invasion of Gaza. This is greater than the annual carbon footprint of many climate-vulnerable nations. Heavy metal contamination has been recorded as a result of intensive bombings.
Air is contaminated with chemicals from weapons like white phosphorus due to the heavy use of explosives, and exposure to white phosphorus munitions, in turn, leads to decreased productivity of agricultural land, and can harm existing plants.
Water resources have been severely compromised, with around 60,000 cubic metres of untreated sewage and wastewater flowing daily into the Mediterranean Sea. Gaza’s drinking water system, already insufficient before the war, with 90-95% of groundwater undrinkable, is now in a further critical state. On average, in April 2024, Gazans had access to around 2 to 8 litres per person per day, compared to 85 litres per person per day before October 2023. Research indicates that 20 litres per capita per day is the minimum quantity of safe water required to realise minimum essential levels for health and hygiene.
Land and soil degradation have devastated Gaza’s agrarian society. The destruction of farms and agricultural lands, coupled with 17 years of blockade, which has deprived the region of essential farming inputs, has led to severe food insecurity. Considering the intensity of the bombardment, it is highly likely agricultural soils in Gaza are contaminated with heavy metals and other chemicals associated with military equipment and munitions. 57% of Gaza’s cropland has been damaged as of May 2024. And according to the UN, Israel has reportedly destroyed 70 percent of Gaza’s fishing fleet. Livestock are starving, unable to provide food or be a source of food.
Olive trees, which are crucial in Palestine due to their deep cultural significance and economic importance, providing livelihoods for many families through olive oil production, have often been deliberately targeted by Israeli soldiers or settlers, becoming a symbol of the suffering of Palestinians dispossessed of their heritage and unable to access their land and crops. The destruction of olive trees is part of a broader pattern of land and property damage – especially witnessed in the West Bank – as well as restrictions that have significant implications for Palestinian livelihoods, food security and the environment.
Public health and the climate crisis: the silent killers
Public health crises and increased vulnerability to the worsening impacts of climate change are silent but deadly consequences of the war. The Middle East and North Africa region is warming nearly twice as fast as the global average. At least 1300 Hajj pilgrims in Mecca have died from heat-related illnesses due to extreme temperatures this year.
Gaza, already a climate-vulnerable region, faces worsening conditions due to the war. Projections indicate that temperatures could rise by 4°C by the century’s end, exacerbating erratic rainfall, heatwaves, and droughts. A recent heatwave in April highlighted the dire conditions for the displaced population, with several people dying from the heat.
Public health infrastructure, already weakened by years of blockade, is collapsing under the strain of the war. Sewage, wastewater and solid waste management systems and facilities have collapsed. Thousands of tons of solid waste are accumulating in informal dumpsites across Gaza, and untreated sewage is freely flowing into the sea. The spread of diseases like skin infections, Hepatitis A, and diarrhoea is increasing, with a potential epidemic threatening thousands of lives. Attacks on hospitals and blockades on medical supplies have crippled Gaza’s healthcare system, leaving millions in urgent need of humanitarian aid. The presence of decaying bodies further increases the risk of cholera outbreaks. Children whose immune systems and lack of food is making them perilously weak, are particularly at risk.
Environmental consequences of the war in Gaza also harm neighbouring countries
The environmental impact of the war extends beyond Gaza, affecting neighbouring countries like Egypt, Jordan, and Lebanon.
Egypt is experiencing pollution in North Sinai and along its Mediterranean coastline, with potential harm to fish stocks, marine life, and groundwater reserves. Air quality has also declined, affecting public health. Jordan too is facing rising air pollution due to its proximity to Gaza.
Lebanon, particularly its southern border areas, suffers from war-related agricultural damage, chemical pollution, and contamination from explosive remnants. There too, a preliminary assessment indicated that white phosphorus shelling has caused extensive environmental harm, impacting natural ecosystems, water quality and posing threats to human health and livestock.
Israel to bear costs of environmental devastation under International Law
Although the natural environment is protected under International Humanitarian Law, it continues to be a “silent casualty of war”. The environmental devastation in Gaza violates multiple international laws and conventions designed to protect the environment during armed conflict. The Rome Statute and Geneva Conventions highlight that intentional environmental destruction can constitute a war crime.
Concepts such as “ecocide” have been used by experts and NGOs to describe the ongoing deliberate destruction of Gaza’s environment. A recent satellite analysis reveals that “the scale and long-term impact of the destruction have led to calls for it to be investigated as a potential war crime, and to be classed as ecocide, which covers damage done to the environment by deliberate or negligent actions.”
International law requires Israel to bear the cost of rebuilding Gaza, given its recognised responsibility as an occupying power.
Gaza’s “unprecedented destruction will take tens of billions of dollars and decades to reverse”
Recent reports attempted to quantify the damage incurred, the time needed and the cost of repairing and reconstructing Gaza’s economy, environment, buildings, primary infrastructure, among others.
An Interim Damage Assessment by the World Bank states that the total cost of damages as of end of January 2024, was approximately US$ 18.5 Billion, the damage already sustained in the water, sanitation and hygiene sector is assessed at over US$ 500 Million; another US$ 629 Million in the agriculture sector, and US$ 411 Million in the environmental sector (including the removal of rubble).
An analysis by researchers in the UK and US said that the carbon cost of rebuilding Gaza will be greater than the annual greenhouse gas emissions generated individually by 135 countries.
According to the UNCTAD, Gaza’s “unprecedented destruction will take tens of billions of dollars and decades to reverse”. A UNDP report says “the level of destruction in Gaza is such that rebuilding public infrastructure would require external assistance on a scale not seen since 1948”, the report also states that Gaza needs approximately 80 years to restore all the fully destroyed housing units, following the same reconstruction patterns as the last two escalations.
With no permanent ceasefire in the horizon, the damage and the cost of reconstruction will inevitably increase, further compromising the ability of the Palestinian people to inhabit Gaza again.
I am witnessing an unfolding genocide with my own eyes, through my phone – a haunting first hand documentation of horror. As long as Israel is not held accountable for the blood it has shed in my region, I fear the Gazans’ fate is coming for the rest of us.
Greenpeace’s demands to protect people, the environment, and peace in Gaza and the region.
Urgent measures:
- An immediate and permanent ceasefire.
- A global embargo on all arms sales and transfers.
- An end to the illegal occupation of Palestine.
- Consistent and secure passage of aid trucks.
- Access for investigators and environmental specialists to conduct field-based surveys.
Long-term measures:
- International and regional donor support for water infrastructure development.
- Comprehensive post-war environmental assessments.
- Sustainable reconstruction efforts focusing on climate mitigation, resilience policies, and community involvement.
- Measures to hold Israel accountable for damage inflicted in Gaza in violation of its international obligations*.
*Based on the international law principle that “the responsible State is under an obligation to make full reparation for the injury caused by the internationally wrongful act.” – Article 31(1) of the Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts, International Law Commission, 2001.
Addressing the extensive environmental damage in Gaza requires both immediate action and long-term strategic planning to ensure sustainable recovery and future resilience.
Solidarity actions you can take
Wherever you are, your solidarity can make a difference. Here are some of the things you can do:
Donate to humanitarian organisations in the region such as UNRWA.
Join calls for a ceasefire, an end to the blockade, by joining peace demonstrations where you are.
Support the call for governments to stop selling weapons to all involved. Amnesty International and Greenpeace UK are among many groups calling for an arms embargo in line with national and international law. Some countries are already taking action to block weapons exports. The Netherlands, Spain, Canada, Belgium, and Italy have all moved to suspend arms sales and military support to Israel.
Join Greenpeace Norway and allies to demand that state oil company Equinor ends their destructive business partnerships and fossil fuel investments in occupied Palestinian land, that violate international law.
Farah Al Hattab is a campaigner and legal researcher with Greenpeace Middle East & North Africa based in Beirut. She was born and raised in southern Lebanon.
焦土政策：
加沙地带正在成为未来几代人无法居住的荒地
作者：Farah Al Hattab ，是绿色和平中东和北非地区驻贝鲁特的活动家和法律研究员。她在黎巴嫩南部出生和长大。
在黎巴嫩南部的山峦中，童年的欢乐与战争和活跃的轰炸总是如影随形。尽管以色列对黎巴嫩南部大部分地区的占领在2000年5月25日结束，那是我出生两年后的事；但对西岸、加沙地带、戈兰高地和沙巴农场的占领至今仍在继续。2006年7月，当我八岁时，黎巴嫩遭受了33天的战争。我成长在一个信念中，那就是黎巴嫩人和巴勒斯坦人的命运在历史上是紧密相连的，终有一天，巴勒斯坦将获得自由。但这不仅仅是关于我的故事。
当我写下这些文字时，以色列对加沙地带的战争已经持续了270天，根据加沙卫生部门的数据，自10月7日以来，至少有38430人死亡，86969人受伤。我们正在目睹一场正在展开的种族灭绝，它对生态系统也产生了严重的后果，侵犯了许多人享受和生活在健康环境中的权利。
“加沙战争的一个严重后果是对清洁、健康、可持续环境权利的大规模侵犯……这代表对生命和享受所有其他权利的严重风险。该地区已经在经历严重的气候影响，情况可能会进一步恶化。” —— 阿斯特丽德·普恩特斯·里亚诺，联合国健康环境人权特别报告员，《卫报》2024年6月6日。
自战争开始以来，作为一名环境和法律研究员，我一直在阅读和整理有关战争对加沙环境破坏性影响的文章和信息。以下是目前所有信息的重点梳理：
发生在加沙的持续战争造成环境代价
加沙持续的战争造成了严重的环境破坏，影响了空气、水和土地，以及所有依赖它们生存的生命。战争直接产生的碳排放量令人震惊，在战争的前120天内，平均估计有536,410吨二氧化碳排放，其中90%归因于以色列对加沙的空袭和地面入侵。这超过了许多气候脆弱国家的年度碳足迹。由于密集轰炸，已经记录了重金属污染的情况。
由于大量使用爆炸物，加沙的空气被白磷等武器所释放的化学物质污染，而白磷弹药的暴露反过来又导致农业土地生产力下降，并对现有植物造成伤害。
水资源遭受严重破坏，每天约有60,000立方米未经处理的污水和废水流入地中海。加沙的饮用水系统在战争之前就已经不足，90-95%的地下水不适合饮用，现在更是处于危急状态。2024年4月平均来看，加沙人每人每天只能获得大约2到8升水，而2023年10月之前每人每天的用水量为85升。研究表明，每人每天至少需要20升安全水，才能实现健康和卫生所需的最低基本水平。
土地和土壤退化严重破坏了加沙的农业社会。农场和农田的破坏，加上长达17年的封锁，剥夺了该地区必需的农业投入，导致了严重的粮食不安全。考虑到轰炸的强度，加沙的农业土壤很可能被重金属和其他与军事装备和弹药相关的化学物质污染。截至2024年5月，加沙57%的耕地已经受损。据联合国称，以色列据报摧毁了加沙70%的渔船队。家畜饥饿，无法提供食物或成为食物来源。
橄榄树在巴勒斯坦至关重要，不仅因为它们深厚的文化意义和经济价值，还因为它们通过橄榄油生产为许多家庭提供生计。然而，橄榄树常常被以色列士兵或定居者故意针对，成为巴勒斯坦人失去遗产、无法接近土地和庄稼的痛苦象征。橄榄树的破坏是土地和财产损害的更广泛模式的一部分——特别是在西岸——以及对巴勒斯坦人的生计、食品安全和环境有重大影响的限制。
公共卫生和气候危机：沉默的杀手
公共卫生危机和对气候变化恶化影响的增加脆弱性是战争的沉默但致命的后果。中东和北非地区的变暖速度几乎是全球平均水平的两倍。今年，至少有1300名朝圣者在麦加因极端高温导致的热相关疾病死亡。
加沙，作为一个气候脆弱地区，由于战争，面临日益恶化的条件。预测表明，到本世纪末，温度可能上升4°C，加剧不规则降雨、热浪和干旱。4月的一次热浪凸显了流离失所人群的绝望状况，有多人因高温死亡。
公共卫生基础设施，由于多年的封锁已经削弱，在战争的压力下正在崩溃。污水、废水和固体废物管理系统和设施已经崩溃。数千吨固体废物在加沙的非正式垃圾场堆积，未经处理的污水自由流入大海。皮肤病感染、甲型肝炎和腹泻等疾病的传播正在增加，潜在的疫情威胁着数千人的生命。对医院的袭击和对医疗用品的封锁使加沙的医疗系统瘫痪，使数百万急需人道主义援助的人处于危险之中。腐烂尸体的存在进一步增加了霍乱爆发的风险。免疫系统薄弱和缺乏食物的儿童尤其处于危险之中。
加沙战争的环境后果也损害了邻国
加沙战争的环境影响不仅限于加沙，还波及到了埃及、约旦和黎巴嫩等邻国。
埃及在北西奈和地中海沿岸地区正遭受污染，可能对鱼类资源、海洋生物和地下水储备造成伤害。空气质量也有所下降，影响了公众健康。约旦也因靠近加沙而面临日益严重的空气污染问题。
黎巴嫩，尤其是其南部边境地区，遭受了与战争相关的农业损害、化学污染和爆炸残留物的污染。初步评估表明，白磷炮弹的轰炸已造成广泛的环境破坏，影响了自然生态系统、水质，并对人和家畜的健康构成威胁。
以色列根据国际法承担环境破坏的成本
尽管自然环境保护在国际人道法下受到保护，但它仍然是“战争中的‘无声伤亡’”。加沙的环境破坏违反了旨在武装冲突期间保护环境的多项国际法律和公约。《罗马规约》和《日内瓦公约》强调，故意破坏环境可以构成战争罪。
专家们和非政府组织使用“生态灭绝”这一概念来描述加沙环境的持续故意破坏。最近的卫星分析揭示，“破坏的规模和长期影响已导致人们呼吁将其作为潜在战争罪行进行调查，并将其归类为生态灭绝，这涵盖了故意或疏忽行为对环境造成的损害。”
国际法要求以色列承担重建加沙的成本，鉴于其作为占领国的公认责任。
加沙的“空前破坏将需要数十亿美元和数十年时间来逆转”
最近的报告试图量化加沙遭受的损失、修复和重建所需的时间和成本，包括经济、环境、建筑、基础设施等。
世界银行的一份临时损害评估报告指出，截至2024年1月底，总损失成本约为185亿美元，其中水、卫生和卫生部门已经承受的损失评估超过5亿美元；农业部门另有6.29亿美元，环境部门（包括清除废墟）损失4.11亿美元。
英国和美国研究人员的分析指出，重建加沙的碳成本将超过135个国家单独产生的年温室气体排放量。
联合国贸易和发展会议（UNCTAD）表示，加沙的“空前破坏将需要数十亿美元和数十年时间来逆转”。联合国开发计划署（UNDP）的报告称，“加沙的破坏程度如此之高，重建公共基础设施将需要自1948年以来前所未有的外部援助规模”，报告还指出，按照过去两次升级的重建模式，加沙需要大约80年时间来恢复所有完全被毁的住房单元。
在没有永久停火的前景下，损害和重建成本将不可避免地增加，进一步削弱巴勒斯坦人民再次居住在加沙的能力。
我亲眼目睹了一场正在展开的种族灭绝，通过我的手机——那些令人难以忘怀的第一手恐怖记录，我也担心加沙人的命运将降临在我们所有人身上。
绿色和平要求保护加沙和该地区的人民、环境和和平的紧急措施：
紧急措施：
- 立即和永久停火。
- 全球对所有武器销售和转移的禁运。
- 结束对巴勒斯坦的非法占领。
- 援助卡车的持续和安全通行。
- 允许调查员和环境专家进行实地调查。
长期措施：
- 国际和地区捐助者支持水基础设施发展。
- 战后全面环境评估。
- 以气候缓解、韧性政策和社区参与为重点的可持续重建努力。
- 采取措施追究以色列违反其国际义务在加沙造成的损害的责任。
*根据国际法原则，“造成国际不法行为的国家有义务对所造成损害进行全面赔偿。”——《国家对国际不法行为的责任》第31条第1款，国际法委员会，2001年。
绿色和平相信，解决加沙广泛的环境损害需要立即采取行动和长期战略规划，才能确保可持续的恢复和未来的韧性。
团结行动您可以采取
无论身在何处，您的团结都能产生影响。以下是您可以采取的一些行动：
- 向该地区的人道主义组织（如UNRWA）捐款。
- 通过参加您所在地的和平示威活动来呼吁停火、结束封锁。
- 支持呼吁各国政府停止向所有涉事方出售武器。国际特赦组织和绿色和平英国等许多组织呼吁根据国家和国际法律实施武器禁运。一些国家已经采取措施阻止出口武器。荷兰、西班牙、加拿大、比利时和意大利都已经采取行动暂停向以色列出售武器和提供军事支持。
- 与绿色和平挪威及盟友一起要求国有石油公司 Equinor 结束他们在被占领的巴勒斯坦土地上的破坏性商业合作伙伴关系和化石燃料投资，这违反了国际法。